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Stella Meghie; description The Photograph is a movie starring LaKeith Stanfield, Issa Rae, and Chelsea Peretti. A series of intertwining love stories set in the past and in the present; Duration 1 h 46 min; genres Romance, Drama; country USA. Cara. você é fera Já vi outros vídeos em outros canais Mas ninguém é tão super explicativo como você Adorei. A circa 1850 "Hillotype" photograph of a colored engraving. Long believed to be a complete fraud, recent testing found that Levi Hill 's process did reproduce some color photographically, but also that many specimens had been "sweetened" by the addition of hand-applied colors. The first color photograph made by the three-color method suggested by James Clerk Maxwell in 1855, taken in 1861 by Thomas Sutton. The subject is a colored ribbon, usually described as a tartan ribbon. An 1877 color photographic print on paper by Louis Ducos du Hauron, the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping yellow, cyan and red subtractive color elements are apparent. The Emir of Bukhara, Alim Khan, in a 1911 color photograph by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky. At right is the triple color-filtered black-and-white glass plate negative, shown here as a positive. A 1912 color photograph of Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, who documented the Russian Empire with a color camera from 1909 to 1915 Autochrome dated 1934, the Royal Swedish Opera Agfacolor photo dated 1938, Vaxholm in Sweden Color photography is photography that uses media capable of reproducing colors. By contrast, black-and-white (monochrome) photography records only a single channel of luminance (brightness) and uses media capable only of showing shades of gray. In color photography, electronic sensors or light-sensitive chemicals record color information at the time of exposure. This is usually done by analyzing the spectrum of colors into three channels of information, one dominated by red, another by green and the third by blue, in imitation of the way the normal human eye senses color. The recorded information is then used to reproduce the original colors by mixing various proportions of red, green and blue light ( RGB color, used by video displays, digital projectors and some historical photographic processes), or by using dyes or pigments to remove various proportions of the red, green and blue which are present in white light ( CMY color, used for prints on paper and transparencies on film). Monochrome images which have been " colorized " by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are "colored photographs", not "color photographs". Their colors are not dependent on the actual colors of the objects photographed and may be inaccurate. The foundation of all practical color processes, the three-color method was first suggested in an 1855 paper by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, with the first color photograph produced by Thomas Sutton for a Maxwell lecture in 1861. [3] [4] Color photography has been the dominant form of photography since the 1970s, with monochrome photography mostly relegated to niche markets such as art photography. History [ edit] Early experiments [ edit] Color photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a "chameleon substance" which would assume the colour of the light falling on it. Some encouraging early results, typically obtained by projecting a solar spectrum directly onto the sensitive surface, seemed to promise eventual success, but the comparatively dim image formed in a camera required exposures lasting for hours or even days. The quality and range of the colour was sometimes severely limited mainly to primary colours, as in the chemically complicated "Hillotype" process invented by American daguerreotypist Levi Hill around 1850. Other experimenters, such as Edmond Becquerel, achieved better results but could find no way to prevent the colours from quickly fading when the images were exposed to light for viewing. Over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value. Three-color processes [ edit] The three-color method, which is the foundation of virtually all practical color processes whether chemical or electronic, was first suggested in an 1855 paper on color vision by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell. [3] [4] It is based on the Young–Helmholtz theory that the normal human eye sees color because its inner surface is covered with millions of intermingled cone cells of three types: in theory, one type is most sensitive to the end of the spectrum we call "red", another is more sensitive to the middle or "green" region, and a third which is most strongly stimulated by "blue". The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the continuous spectrum of visible light, and the theory is not an entirely accurate description of cone sensitivity. But the simple description of these three colors coincides enough with the sensations experienced by the eye that when these three colors are used the three cones types are adequately and unequally stimulated to form the illusion of various intermediate wavelengths of light. In his studies of color vision, Maxwell showed, by using a rotating disk with which he could alter the proportions, that any visible hue or gray tone could be made by mixing only three pure colors of light – red, green and blue – in proportions that would stimulate the three types of cells to the same degrees under particular lighting conditions. [5] To emphasize that each type of cell by itself did not actually see color but was simply more or less stimulated, he drew an analogy to black-and-white photography: if three colorless photographs of the same scene were taken through red, green and blue filters, and transparencies ("slides") made from them were projected through the same filters and superimposed on a screen, the result would be an image reproducing not only red, green and blue, but all of the colors in the original scene. [6] The first color photograph made according to Maxwell's prescription, a set of three monochrome " color separations ", was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in illustrating a lecture on color by Maxwell, where it was shown in color by the triple projection method. [7] The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of various colors, apparently including red and green. During the lecture, which was about physics and physiology, not photography, Maxwell commented on the inadequacy of the results and the need for a photographic material more sensitive to red and green light. A century later, historians were mystified by the reproduction of any red at all, because the photographic process used by Sutton was for all practical purposes totally insensitive to red light and only marginally sensitive to green. In 1961, researchers found that many red dyes also reflect ultraviolet light, coincidentally transmitted by Sutton's red filter, and surmised that the three images were probably due to ultra-violet, blue-green and blue wavelengths, rather than to red, green and blue. [8] Additive color [ edit] Creating colors by mixing colored lights (usually red, green and blue) in various proportions is the additive method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT (picture tube) color video displays all use this method. If one of these displays is examined with a sufficiently strong magnifier, it will be seen that each pixel is actually composed of red, green and blue sub-pixels which blend at normal viewing distances, reproducing a wide range of colors as well as white and shades of gray. This is also known as the RGB color model. Subtractive color [ edit] The same three images taken through red, green and blue filters which are used for additive color synthesis may also be used to produce color prints and transparencies by the subtractive method, in which colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In photography, the dye colors are normally cyan, a greenish-blue which absorbs red; magenta, a purplish-pink which absorbs green; and yellow, which absorbs blue. The red-filtered image is used to create a cyan dye image, the green-filtered image to create a magenta dye image, and the blue-filtered image to create a yellow dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a complete color image. This is also known as the CMYK color model. The "K" is a black component normally added in ink-jet and other mechanical printing processes to compensate for the imperfections of the colored inks used, which ideally should absorb or transmit various parts of the spectrum but not reflect any color, and to improve image definition. At first it may seem that each image ought to be printed in the color of the filter used in making it, but by following any given color through the process the reason for printing in complementary colors should become apparent. A red object, for example, will be very pale in the red-filtered image but very dark in the other two images, so the result will be an area with just a trace of cyan, absorbing just a bit of red light, but a large amount of magenta and yellow, which together absorb most of the green and blue light, leaving mainly red light to be reflected back from the white paper in the case of a print, or transmitted through a clear support in the case of a transparency. Before the technical innovations of the years 1935 to 1942, the only way to create a subtractive full-color print or transparency was by means of one of several labor-intensive and time-consuming procedures. Most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so-called carbon process and then carefully combined in register. Sometimes, related processes were used to make three gelatin matrices which were dyed and assembled or used to transfer the three dye images into a single layer of gelatin coated on a final support. Chemical toning could be used to convert three black-and-white silver images into cyan, magenta and yellow images which were then assembled. In a few processes, the three images were created one on top of another by repeated coating or re-sensitizing, negative registration, exposure and development operations. A number of variations were devised and marketed during the first half of the 20th century, some of them short-lived, others, such as the Trichrome Carbro process, enduring for several decades. Because some of these processes allow very stable and light-fast coloring matter to be used, yielding images which can remain virtually unchanged for centuries, they are still not quite completely extinct. The production of photographic three-color prints on paper was pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron, whose comprehensive 1868 French patent also included the basic concepts of most of the color photographic processes which were subsequently developed. For making the three color-filtered negatives required, he was able to develop materials and methods which were not as completely blind to red and green light as those used by Thomas Sutton in 1861, but they were still very insensitive to those colors. Exposure times were impractically long, the red or orange-filtered negative requiring hours of exposure in the camera. His earliest surviving color prints are "sun prints" of pressed flowers and leaves, each of the three negatives having been made without a camera by exposing the light-sensitive surface to direct sunlight passing first through a color filter and then through the vegetation. His first attempts were based on the red-yellow-blue colors then used for pigments, with no color reversal. Later he used the primary colors of light with color reversal. Color sensitization [ edit] As long as photographic materials were usefully sensitive only to blue-green, blue, violet and ultraviolet, three-color photography could never be practical. In 1873 German chemist Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the addition of small amounts of certain aniline dyes to a photographic emulsion could add sensitivity to colors which the dyes absorbed. He identified dyes which variously sensitized for all the previously ineffective colors except true red, to which only a marginal trace of sensitivity could be added. [9] [10] [11] [12] In the following year, Edmond Becquerel discovered that chlorophyll was a good sensitizer for red. [13] Although it would be many more years before these sensitizers (and better ones developed later) found much use beyond scientific applications such as spectrography, they were quickly and eagerly adopted by Louis Ducos du Hauron, Charles Cros and other color photography pioneers. Exposure times for the "problem" colors could now be reduced from hours to minutes. As ever-more-sensitive gelatin emulsions replaced the old wet and dry collodion processes, the minutes became seconds. New sensitizing dyes introduced early in the 20th century eventually made so-called "instantaneous" color exposures possible. Color cameras [ edit] Making color separations by reloading the camera and changing the filter between exposures was inconvenient, added delays to the already long exposure times and could result in the camera being accidentally shifted out of position. To improve the actual picture-taking, a number of experimenters designed one or more special cameras for color photography. They were usually of two main types. The first type used a system of partially reflecting surfaces to divide the light coming through the lens into three parts, each part passing through a different color filter and forming a separate image, so that the three images could be photographed at the same time on three plates (flexible film had not yet replaced glass plates as the support for the emulsion) or different areas of one plate. Later known as "one-shot" cameras, refined versions continued to be used as late as the 1950s for special purposes such as commercial photography for publication, in which a set of color separations was ultimately required in order to prepare printing plates. The second type, known variously as a multiple back, repeating back or drop back camera, still exposed the images one at a time but used a sliding holder for the filters and plates which allowed each filter and the corresponding unexposed area of emulsion to be quickly shifted into place. German photochemistry professor Adolf Miethe designed a high-quality camera of this type which was commercially introduced by Bermpohl in 1903. It was probably this Miethe-Bermpohl camera which was used by Miethe's pupil Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii to make his now-celebrated color photographic surveys of Russia before the 1917 revolution. One sophisticated variant, patented by Frederic Eugene Ives in 1897, was driven by clockwork and could be adjusted to automatically make each of the exposures for a different length of time according to the particular color sensitivities of the emulsion being used. [14] Otherwise simple cameras with multiple color-filtered lenses were sometimes tried, but unless everything in the scene was at a great distance, or all in a plane at the same distance, the difference in the viewpoints of the lenses ( parallax) made it impossible to completely register all parts of the resulting images at the same time. Color photography leaves the laboratory [ edit] Prior to the late 1890s color photography was strictly the domain of a very few intrepid experimenters willing to build their own equipment, do their own color-sensitizing of photographic emulsions, make and test their own color filters and otherwise devote a large amount of time and effort to their pursuits. There were many opportunities for something to go wrong during the series of operations required and problem-free results were rare. Most photographers still regarded the whole idea of color photography as a pipe dream, something only madmen and swindlers would claim to have accomplished. In 1898, however, it was possible to buy the required equipment and supplies ready-made. Two adequately red-sensitive photographic plates [15] were already on the market, and two very different systems of color photography with which to use them, tantalizingly described in photographic magazines for several years past, were finally available to the public. The most extensive and expensive of the two was the "Kromskop" (pronounced "chrome-scope") system developed by Frederic Eugene Ives. [16] This was a straightforward additive system and its essential elements had been described by James Clerk Maxwell, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros much earlier, but Ives invested years of careful work and ingenuity in refining the methods and materials to optimize color quality, in overcoming problems inherent in the optical systems involved, and in simplifying the apparatus to bring down the cost of producing it commercially. The color images, dubbed "Kromograms", were in the form of sets of three black-and-white transparencies on glass, mounted onto special cloth-tape-hinged triple cardboard frames. To see a Kromogram in color it had to be inserted into a "Kromskop" (generic name "chromoscope" or "photochromoscope"), a viewing device which used an arrangement of colored glass filters to illuminate each slide with the correct color of light and transparent reflectors to visually combine them into a single full-color image. The most popular model was stereoscopic. By looking through its pair of lenses, an image in full natural color and 3-D was seen, a startling novelty in the late Victorian age. The results won near-universal praise for excellence and realism. At demonstrations, Ives sometimes placed a viewer displaying a still-life subject next to the actual objects photographed, inviting direct comparison. A Kromskop triple "lantern" could be used to project the three images, mounted in a special metal or wooden frame for this purpose, through filters as Maxwell had done in 1861. Prepared Kromograms of still-life subjects, landscapes, famous buildings and works of art were sold and these were the Kromskop viewer's usual fodder, but a "multiple back" camera attachment and a set of three specially adjusted color filters could be bought by "Kromskopists" wishing to make their own Kromograms. Kromskops and ready-made Kromograms were bought by educational institutions for their value in teaching about color and color vision, and by individuals who were in a position to pay a substantial sum for an intriguing optical toy. A few people did, indeed, make their own Kromograms. Unfortunately for Ives, this was not enough to sustain the businesses which had been set up to exploit the system and they soon failed, but the viewers, projectors, Kromograms and several varieties of Kromskop cameras and camera attachments continued to be available through the Scientific Shop in Chicago as late as 1907. Screen-plate era [ edit] The simpler and somewhat more economical alternative was the Joly screen process. This required no special camera or viewer, just a special color-compensating filter for the camera lens and a special holder for the photographic plates. The holder contained the heart of the system: a clear glass plate on which very fine lines of three colors had been ruled in a regular repeating pattern, completely covering its surface. The idea was that instead of taking three separate complete photographs through three colored filters, the filters could be in the form of a large number of very narrow strips (the colored lines) allowing the necessary color information to be recorded in a single compound image. After the negative was developed, a positive transparency was printed from it and a viewing screen with red, green and blue lines in the same pattern as the lines of the taking screen was applied and carefully aligned. The colors then appeared as if by magic. The transparency and screen were very like the layer of monochrome liquid crystal elements and overlay of hair-thin red, green and blue color filter stripes which create the color image in a typical LCD display. This was the invention of Irish scientist John Joly, although he, like so many other inventors, eventually discovered that his basic concept had been anticipated in Louis Ducos du Hauron's long-since-expired 1868 patent. [17] The Joly screen process had some problems. First and foremost, although the colored lines were reasonably fine (about 75 sets of three colored lines to the inch) they were still disturbingly visible at normal viewing distances and nearly intolerable when enlarged by projection. This problem was exacerbated by the fact that each screen was individually ruled on a machine which used three pens to apply the transparent colored inks, resulting in irregularities, high reject rates and high cost. The glass used for photographic plates at the time was not perfectly flat, and lack of uniform good contact between the screen and the image gave rise to areas of degraded color. Poor contact also caused false colors to appear if the sandwich was viewed at an angle. Although much simpler than the Kromskop system, the Joly system was not inexpensive. The starter kit of plate holder, compensating filter, one taking screen and one viewing screen cost US$30 (the equivalent of at least $750 in 2010 dollars) and additional viewing screens were $1 each (the equivalent of at least $25 in 2010 dollars). This system, too, soon died of neglect, although in fact it pointed the way to the future. Surviving examples of the Joly process usually show extremely poor color now. The colors in the viewing screens have badly faded and shifted, making it impossible to judge their original appearance. In some specimens the viewing screen is also misaligned. Lippmann photography is a way of making a color photograph that relies on Bragg reflection planes in the emulsion to make the colors. It is similar to using the colors of soap bubbles to make an image. Gabriel Jonas Lippmann won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1908 for the creation of the first color photographic process using a single emulsion. The method is based on the interference phenomenon. [18] The color fidelity is extremely high but the images can not be reproduced and viewing requires very specific lighting conditions. The development of the Autochrome process quickly rendered the Lippmann method redundant. The method is still utilized to make singular images that cannot be copied for security purposes. The first commercially successful color process, the Lumière Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers, reached the market in 1907. Instead of colored strips, it was based on an irregular screen plate filter made of three colors of dyed grains of potato starch which were too small to be individually visible. The light-sensitive emulsion was coated directly onto the screen plate, eliminating problems due to imperfect contact between the screen and image. Reversal processing was used to convert the negative image which was initially produced into a positive image by removing the exposed silver metal, and re-exposing the remaining silver halide, so no printing or screen registration was required. The shortcomings of the Autochrome process were the expense (one plate cost about as much as a dozen black-and-white plates of the same size), the relatively long exposure times which made hand-held "snapshots" and photographs of moving subjects impractical, and the density of the finished image due to the presence of the light-absorbing color screen. Viewed under optimum conditions and by daylight as intended, a well-made and well-preserved Autochrome can look startlingly fresh and vivid. Unfortunately, modern film and digital copies are usually made with a highly diffused light source, which causes loss of color saturation and other ill effects due to light scatter within the structure of the screen and emulsion, and by fluorescent or other artificial light which alters the color balance. The capabilities of the process should not be judged by the dull, washed-out, odd-colored reproductions commonly seen. Millions of Autochrome plates were manufactured and used during the quarter century before the plates were replaced by film-based versions in the 1930s. The very last film version, named Alticolor, brought the Autochrome process into the 1950s but was discontinued in 1955. Many additive color screen products were available between the 1890s and the 1950s, but none, with the possible exception of Dufaycolor, introduced as film for still photography in 1935, was as popular or successful as the Lumière Autochrome. The most recent use of the additive screen process for non-digital photography was in Polachrome, an "instant" 35mm slide film introduced in 1983 and discontinued about twenty years later. Tripacks [ edit] Louis Ducos du Hauron had suggested using a sandwich of three differently color-recording emulsions on transparent supports which could be exposed together in an ordinary camera, then taken apart and used like any other set of three-color separations. The problem was that although two of the emulsions could be in contact face-to-face, the third would have to be separated by the thickness of one transparent support layer. Because all silver halide emulsions are inherently sensitive to blue, the blue-recording layer ought to be on top and have a blue-blocking yellow filter layer behind it. This blue-recording layer, used to make the yellow print which could most afford to be "soft", would end up producing the sharpest image. The two layers behind it, one sensitized to red but not green and the other to green but not red, would suffer from scattering of the light as it passed through the topmost emulsion, and one or both would further suffer by being spaced away from it. Despite these limitations, some "tripacks" were commercially produced, such as the Hess-Ives "Hiblock" which sandwiched an emulsion on film between emulsions coated on glass plates. For a brief period in the early 1930s, the American Agfa-Ansco company produced Colorol, a roll-film tripack for snapshot cameras. The three emulsions were on unusually thin film bases. After exposure, the roll was sent to Agfa-Ansco for processing and the triple negatives were returned to the customer with a set of color prints. The images were not sharp and the color was not very good, but they were genuine "natural color" snapshots. "Bipacks" using only two emulsions face-to-face were the subject of some development. Although the range of colors which could be reproduced by only two components was limited, skin tones and most hair and eye colors could be rendered with surprising fidelity, making bipack processes a viable option for color portraiture. In commercial practice, however, the use of bipacks was almost entirely confined to two-color motion picture systems. If the three layers of emulsion in a tripack did not have to be taken apart in order to produce the cyan, magenta and yellow dye images from them, they could be coated directly on top of each other, eliminating the most serious problems. In fact, some chemical magic was under development which would make that possible. Color film since the 1930s [ edit] In 1935, American Eastman Kodak introduced the first modern "integral tripack" color film and called it Kodachrome, a name recycled from an earlier and completely different two-color process. Its development was led by the improbable team of Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky, Jr. (nicknamed "Man" and "God"), two highly regarded classical musicians who had started tinkering with color photographic processes and ended up working with the Kodak Research Laboratories. Kodachrome had three layers of emulsion coated on a single base, each layer recording one of the three additive primaries, red, green, and blue. In keeping with Kodak's old "you press the button, we do the rest" slogan, the film was simply loaded into the camera, exposed in the ordinary way, then mailed to Kodak for processing. The complicated part, if the complexities of manufacturing the film are ignored, was the processing, which involved the controlled penetration of chemicals into the three layers of emulsion. Only a simplified description of the process is appropriate in a short history: as each layer was developed into a black-and-white silver image, a " dye coupler " added during that stage of development caused a cyan, magenta or yellow dye image to be created along with it. The silver images were chemically removed, leaving only the three layers of dye images in the finished film. Initially, Kodachrome was available only as 16mm film for home movies, but in 1936 it was also introduced as 8mm home movie film and short lengths of 35mm film for still photography. In 1938, sheet film in various sizes for professional photographers was introduced, some changes were made to cure early problems with unstable colors, and a somewhat simplified processing method was instituted. In 1936, the German Agfa followed with their own integral tripack film, Agfacolor Neu, which was generally similar to Kodachrome but had one important advantage: Agfa had found a way to incorporate the dye couplers into the emulsion layers during manufacture, allowing all three layers to be developed at the same time and greatly simplifying the processing. Most modern color films, excepting the now-discontinued Kodachrome, use the incorporated dye coupler technique, but since the 1970s nearly all have used a modification developed by Kodak rather than the original Agfa version. In 1941, Kodak made it possible to order prints from Kodachrome slides. The print "paper" was actually a white plastic coated with a multilayer emulsion similar to that on the film. These were the first commercially available color prints created by the chromogenic dye coupler method. In the following year, Kodacolor film was introduced. Unlike Kodachrome, it was designed to be processed into a negative image which showed not only light and dark reversed but also complementary colors. The use of such a negative for making prints on paper simplified the processing of the prints, reducing their cost. The expense of color film as compared to black-and-white and the difficulty of using it with indoor lighting combined to delay its widespread adoption by amateurs. In 1950, black-and-white snapshots were still the norm. By 1960, color was much more common but still tended to be reserved for travel photos and special occasions. Color film and color prints still cost several times as much as black-and-white, and taking color snapshots in deep shade or indoors required the use of flashbulbs, an inconvenience and an additional expense. By 1970, prices were coming down, film sensitivity had been improved, electronic flash units were replacing flashbulbs, and in most families color had become the norm for snapshot-taking. Black-and-white film continued to be used by some photographers who preferred it for aesthetic reasons or who wanted to take pictures by existing light in low-light conditions, which was still difficult to do with color film. They usually did their own developing and printing. By 1980, black-and-white film in the formats used by typical snapshot cameras, as well as commercial developing and printing service for it, had nearly disappeared. Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963. Like Polaroid's contemporary instant black-and-white film, their first color product was a negative-positive peel-apart process which produced a unique print on paper. The negative could not be reused and was discarded. The blight created by carelessly discarded caustic-chemical-laden Polaroid negatives, which tended to accumulate most heavily at the prettiest, most snapshot-worthy locations, horrified Polaroid founder Edwin Land and prompted him to develop the later SX-70 system, which produced no separate negative to discard. Some currently available color films are designed to produce positive transparencies for use in a slide projector or magnifying viewer, although paper prints can also be made from them. Transparencies are preferred by some professional photographers who use film because they can be judged without having to print them first. Transparencies are also capable of a wider dynamic range, and therefore of a greater degree of realism, than the more convenient medium of prints on paper. The early popularity of color "slides" among amateurs went into decline after the introduction of automated printing equipment started bringing print quality up and prices down. Other currently available films are designed to produce color negatives for use in creating enlarged positive prints on color photographic paper. Color negatives may also be digitally scanned and then printed by non-photographic means or viewed as positives electronically. Unlike reversal-film transparency processes, negative-positive processes are, within limits, forgiving of incorrect exposure and poor color lighting, because a considerable degree of correction is possible at the time of printing. Negative film is therefore more suitable for casual use by amateurs. Virtually all single-use cameras employ negative film. Photographic transparencies can be made from negatives by printing them on special "positive film", but this has always been unusual outside of the motion picture industry and commercial service to do it for still images may no longer be available. Negative films and paper prints are by far the most common form of color film photography today. Digital photography [ edit] The Bayer arrangement of color filters on the pixel array of an image sensor After a transition period centered around 1995–2005, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel digital cameras which can shoot both in monochrome as well as color. Film continues to be the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive "look" and fondness of the format. The most commonly used method of obtaining color information in digital photography is the use of a Bayer filter, invented by Bryce Bayer of Eastman Kodak in 1976. In this approach, a sensor that is sensitive to multiple wavelengths of light is placed behind a color filter. Traditionally, each pixel, or "sensel", is thereby assigned an additional light response curve beyond its inherent differential response to different wavelengths - typically the filters applied respond to red, blue and green, the latter being used twice as often based on an argument that the human eye is more sensitive to variation in green than any other color. Thus, the color image produced would preserve color in a way resembling human perception, and not appear unduly deteriorated in any particular color range. However, alternative approaches do exist. The Foveon sensor uses the fact that light penetrates silicon to a depth that depends on the wavelength of the light. Thus, reading light at a lower layer in a silicon stack would yield a different value than reading it at the top, and the difference can be used to compute the color of the light in addition to its intensity. Another possibility is using a prism to separate the colors onto three separate capturing devices, as in a three-CCD camera. The Bayer pattern itself has had various modifications proposed. One class of these uses the same pattern, but changes the colors of the glass, for instance using cyan, yellow, green and magenta for increased sensitivity to the intensity of light (luminance) or replacing one green cell with an "emerald" or cyan one. Fujifilm in particular has proposed some of the more unusual variations of the Bayer pattern, such as the EXR and X-Trans patterns. Artists' perspectives [ edit] Photographers differed in opinion about color photography when it was first introduced. Some fully embraced it when it was available to the public in the late 1930s, while others remained skeptical of its relevance in the art of photography. Fans of color [ edit] Paul Outerbridge was an American photographer prominent for his early use and experiments in color photography. He began writing a monthly column on color photography for the U. S. Camera Magazine around 1930. Outerbridge became known for the high quality of his color illustrations, made by an extremely complex tri-color carbro process. [19] In 1940 he published his seminal book Photographing in Color, using high quality illustrations to explain his techniques. [20] Ferenc Berko, a classic photographer [ vague] who lived during the rise of color film, was one of the photographers who immediately recognized the potential of color film. He saw it as a new way to frame the world; a way to experiment with the subjects he photographed and how he conveyed emotion in the photograph. [21] John Hedgecoe, another photographer who lived during this time period, [ vague] was another example of those who preferred color. He published a book entitled The Art of Color Photography, in which he explained the importance of understanding the "special and often subtle relationships between different colors". He also described the psychological and emotional power that color can have on the viewer, since certain colors, he argues, can make people feel a certain way. [22] William Eggleston is widely credited with increasing recognition for color photography as a legitimate artistic medium. Jan Groover, a postmodernist noted for her work during the 1970s used color extensively in her work. Skeptics [ edit] Though color photography had its followers, black-and-white still remained the more popular and respected film when color first came out. According to Eggleston, his former idol, Henri Cartier-Bresson, said to him at a party, “William, color is bullshit”, and then not another word. [23] Harold Baquet, for instance—a relatively current photographer [ vague] known best for documenting New Orleans civil rights—was not keen on color. He preferred to take pictures mainly using black-and-white film. When asked about his reasoning for this preference during an interview, he replied “The less is more thing. Sometimes the color distracts from the essential subject. Sometimes, just light, line and form is enough, and it allows you to explore the sculptural qualities of that third dimension, that illusional dimension of depth. And it’s fun”. [24] This aversion to color was due mainly to a fear of losing simplicity in his pictures. He worried that color gave the eye too much to take in. [24] This worry was not uncommon. Photographer Ansel Adams, known best for his dramatic black-and-white landscapes, also felt that color could be distracting, and could therefore divert the artist's attention away from creating a photograph to his full potential, according to some experts. Adams actually claimed that he could get "a far greater sense of 'color' through a well-planned and executed black-and-white image than [he had] ever achieved with color photography". [25] Another expert source [ vague] mentioned that Adams was a "master of control". He wrote books about technique, developed the Zone System —which helped determine the optimal exposure and development time for a given photograph—and introduced the idea of "previsualization", which involved the photographer imagining what he wanted his final print to look like before he even took the shot. These concepts and methods allowed for nearly total control of all the potential variables that factor into a final print. Because of this love for control, Adams disliked color because it lacked this element that he had mastered with black-and-white. [ citation needed] While Adams initially was far from thrilled with color, he did experiment with it, unknown to many. A few examples of his color work are available in the online archive of the Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona. His subjects that he shot in color ranged from portraits to landscape to architecture; [26] a similar scope to that of his black and white work. In fact, toward the end of his life, Adams admitted [ citation needed] his regret of not being able to master the technique of color, according to an expert source. [ vague] Though a wide range of film preference still exists among photographers today, color has, with time, gained a much larger following as well as a higher level of respect in the field of photography as a whole. Preservation issues [ edit] Experimentation with creating photographs that mirrored the colors of real life began in the 1840s. Each process may require different methods of preservation. Color photographic materials are impermanent and are by nature unstable. Chromogenic color photographs, for example, are composed of yellow, magenta, and cyan organic dyes, which fade at different rates. Even when in dark storage and enclosed in the proper archival materials, deterioration is unavoidable. However, when given the proper preservation care, fading, color shifting, and discoloration can be delayed. Factors [ edit] Numerous factors can deteriorate and even destroy photographs. Some examples include: High temperature and high relative humidity (RH) Air pollution and dirt Light exposure Biological threats such as fungi and insects Residual processing chemicals Base and emulsion deterioration Handling and usage Improper storage and enclosures Three signs of age that affect color photography are: Dark fading occurs regardless of the procedures taken to preserve a photograph and is unavoidable. It is instigated by temperature and RH. Cyan dyes will typically fade more quickly, which will make the image appear too red in color. Light fading occurs when materials are exposed to light, e. g. while on display. The intensity of the light source and ultraviolet (UV) rays will affect the rate of change and fade. Magenta dyes will typically fade the quickest. Highlight staining occurs with older color photographic papers, and is a yellowing of the border and highlight areas of a photograph. Storage [ edit] In general, the colder the storage, the longer the "life" of color photographs. Frost-free refrigeration, more commonly known as cold storage (below freezing) is one of the most effective ways to bring a halt to developing damage to color photographic materials. Selecting this type of storage environment is costly and requires special training to remove and return items. Therefore, cool storage (above freezing) is more common and less costly, which requires that the temperature is consistently between 10–15 °C (50–59 °F) with 30–40% relative humidity with special attention to dew point to eliminate concerns for condensation. General dark storage in light tight enclosures and storage boxes is always advised for individual items. When materials are exposed to light during handling, usage, or display, light sources should be UV-filtered and intensity kept at minimum. In storage areas, 200–400  lux is recommended. Recommended storage [ edit] The usage of enclosures is the easiest method of preserving photographic materials from being damaged through handling and light exposure. All protective materials should pass the Photographic Activity Test (PAT) as described both by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in standard IT9. 2–1988, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in standard 18916:2007 (E), Photography – Processed Photographic Materials – Photographic Activity Test for Enclosure Materials. The PAT is an archival science test that determines what kind of enclosures will preserve, prevent, and/or prolong from further deterioration while in storage. The recommended use of archival enclosures includes each item having its own enclosure and that each enclosure is of the appropriate size. Archival enclosures may come in two different forms: paper or plastic. Choosing either option has its advantages and disadvantages. Paper enclosures should be non-acidic, lignin-free paper and may come in either buffered or non-buffered stock. An advantage of paper is that it is generally less costly than plastic enclosures. The opaque quality of paper protects photographs from light exposure, and the porous quality protects photographs from humidity and gaseous pollutants. However, for images to be viewed, they must be removed from the enclosure, putting the materials at risk for mishandling and/or vandalism. Archival quality plastic enclosures are made of uncoated polyester, polypropylene, or polyethylene. The transparent quality of plastic lends itself to easier access to the image because there is no extra step to remove the photograph. Plastic is also less resistant to tears in comparison to paper. Some disadvantages include being prone to static electricity and a risk of ferrotyping (the act of moisture becoming trapped between the enclosure and item, causing the materials to stick to one another). After photographic materials are individually enclosed, housing or storage containers provide another protective barrier such as folders and boxes made from archival paperboard as addressed in ISO Standards 18916:2007 and 18902. Sometimes these containers have to be custom-made in order to properly store odd sizes. In general, flat storage in boxes is recommended because it provides more stable support, particularly for materials that are in more fragile condition. Still, boxes and folders should never be over-filled with materials. Patents [ edit] This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. ( June 2008) U. Patent 2, 059, 884 —Color photography See also [ edit] Notes [ edit] ^ Shepherd, Sanger. Provisional Catalogue of Apparatus and Materials for Natural Colour Photography: Sanger Shepherd Process.. Retrieved 26 October 2015. ^ Hudson, Giles (2012). Sarah Angelina Acland: First Lady of Colour Photography. Oxford: Bodleian Library, University of Oxford. ISBN   978 1 85124 372 3. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2013. Distributed by The University of Chicago Press in the US. ^ a b "1861: James Clerk Maxwell's greatest year". King's College London. 3 January 2017. ^ a b "From Charles Mackintosh's waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world". The independent. 30 December 2016. ^ Maxwell, James Clerk (1855). "Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. XXI part II. Retrieved 2014-07-06. ^ Science progress in the twentieth century: a quarterly journal of scientific work & thought, Volume 2. John Murray. 1908. p. 359. (Note: in apparent deference to the primaries named by Thomas Young, Maxwell calls the short-wavelength primary "violet" in the relevant paragraphs of his 1855 paper, though he actually used blue in his own experiments, which the paper also describes, and in his 1861 demonstration) ^ "The first colour photograph, 1861". The Guardian. 3 January 2017. ^ R. W. G. Hunt (2004). The Reproduction of Colour, 6th edition. Wiley. pp 9–10. R. M. Evans (1961a). “Some Notes on Maxwell’s Colour Photograph. ” Journal of Photographic Science 9. pp243–246 R. Evans (1961b). “Maxwell's Color Photography”. Scientific Photography 205. pp 117–128. ^ Vogel, H: "On the sensitiveness of bromide of silver to the so-called chemically inactive colours", Chemical News, December 26, 1873:318–319, copying from The Photographic News, date and page not cited but apparently December 12, 1873 (the latter not known to be available online as of August 6, 2010), in turn translated from Vogel's own publication Photographische Mittheilungen, December, 1873 10(117):233–237. The capital letters used in this and other sources cited refer to the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, in keeping with contemporary practice. For convenience of reference: C is 656 nm, a slightly deeper red than the output of an average red laser pointer; D is 589 nm, the orange-yellow light of a sodium vapor lamp; E is 527 nm, green. ^ Vogel, H: "Photo-spectroscopic researches", The Photographic News, March 20, 1874:136–137, translated from Photographische Mittheilungen, February, 1874 10(119):279–283. ^ Vogel, H: "Rendering actinic non-actinic rays", The Photographic News, July 3, 1874:320–321, a direct communication (apparently in the original English) to The Photographic News. ^ Meldola, R. "Recent Researches In Photography". "Popular Science", October 1874, Pg. 717–720 ISSN 0161-7370 ^ Becquerel, E: "The action of rays of different refrangibility upon the iodide and bromide of silver: the influence of colouring matters", The Photographic News, October 23, 1874:508–509, translated from Comptes Rendus (1874) 79:185–190 (the latter downloaded from the Bibliotheque Nationale Francaise on January 28, 2006 but not directly linkable). Note one significant error in the Photographic News translation, page 509: "gorous band between the rays C and D" (referring to Fraunhofer lines) should be "C and B" per the original French text and in agreement with subsequent mentions in the translation. ^ Ives, F: Kromskop Color Photography, pages 33–35. The Photochromoscope Syndicate Limited, London, 1898. Only a brief description of this automated camera is given but a line drawing of the mechanism and the patent reference are included. An Ives one-shot camera is described and illustrated on pages 30–33 and a horizontally oriented multiple back attachment is illustrated on page 37. ^ Abney, W: "Orthochromatic photography", Journal of the Society of Arts, May 22, 1896 44:587–597 describes and illustrates (with spectrum photographs and curves) the characteristics of the Lumière Panchromatic and Cadett Spectrum plates as of 1896. Note that during this period "orthochromatic" was not intended to mean "red-blind", although most or all commercial products so labeled indeed were, which may explain the subsequent evolution in the meaning of the word. The wild roller-coaster curves necessitated laborious adjustment and testing of the color filters to obtain the three desired curves. In the cases of the red and green filters, that could mean quashing over ninety-nine percent of the overall sensitivity, requiring exposures measured in seconds under circumstances where one-fiftieth of a second would have sufficed for unfiltered monochrome use. Disproportionate blue sensitivity, requiring the use of a yellow filter for accurate monochrome rendition in daylight, was typical of commercial panchromatic emulsions far into the 20th Century. See also the previously referenced Ives, F: Kromskop Color Photography, price list (following page 80) pages 1–2, and the subsequently referenced Joly, J: "On a method... ", page 135 for mentions of the use of the Lumière Panchromatic in those systems. The alternative alluded to in Ives may be the Cadett Spectrum but could also be the Edwards Isochromatic, only slightly sensitive to red, which Ives is on record as having employed at an earlier date. The Cadett Lightning Spectrum plate, with an improved spectral response curve and greatly increased overall speed, was available by mid-1900. ^ Joly, J: "On a method of photography in natural colors", Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, October, 1896 6(2):127–138 includes details such as the actual reasons for the unusual colors employed in the taking screen and examples of the exposures required. The color illustrations have obviously had considerable hand-work done by the engravers and may have been entirely hand-colored using the original transparencies as a guide. As is evident from page 127, publication was delayed by more than a year. The 1895 date is confirmed by the publication of a lengthy abstract in Nature, November 28, 1895 53(1361):91–93. ^ From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967. ^ Szarkowski, John (July 28, 1999). Looking at Photographs: 100 Pictures from the Collection of the Museum of Modern Art. Bulfinch. ^ Honan, William (March 26, 2000). "Ferenc Berko, 84, Pioneer In Use of Color Photography". The New York Times. ^ Hedgecoe, John (1998). The Art of Color Photography. Reed Consumer Books. ^ a b Tuley, Laura Camille (December 2007). "An Interview with Harold Baquet" (PDF). New Orleans Review. 33 (2): 108–116. Retrieved March 21, 2012. ^ Woodward, Richard B. (November 2009). "Ansel Adams in Color". Smithsonian. ^ "Ansel Adams: Browse". Center for Creative Photography. University of Arizona. References [ edit] Coe, Brian, Colour Photography: the first hundred years 1840–1940, Ash & Grant, 1978. Coote, Jack, The Illustrated History of Colour Photography, Fountain Press Ltd., 1993, ISBN   0-86343-380-4 Eastman Kodak Company. (1979). Preservation of photographs. Kodak publication, no. F-30. [Rochester, N. Y. ]: Eastman Kodak Co. Great Britain, & Paine, C. (1996). Standards in the museum care of photographic collections 1996. London: Museums & Galleries Commission. ISBN   0-948630-42-6 Keefe, L. E., & Inch, D. (1990). The life of a photograph: archival processing, matting, framing, storage. Boston: Focal Press. ISBN   0-240-80024-9, ISBN   978-0-240-80024-0 Lavédrine, B., Gandolfo, J. -P., & Monod, S. (2003). A guide to the preventive conservation of photograph collections. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute. ISBN   0-89236-701-6, ISBN   978-0-89236-701-6 Photograph preservation and the research library. (1991). Mountain View, Ca: The Research Libraries Group. ISBN   0-87985-212-7 Penichon, Sylvie (2013). Twentieth-Century Color Photographs: Identification and Care. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN   978-1-60606-156-5 Reilly, J. (1998). Storage guide for color photographic materials. Albany, N. : University of the State of New York... [et al. ]. Ritzenthaler, M. L., Vogt-O'Connor, D., & Ritzenthaler, M. L. (2006). Photographs: archival care and management. Chicago: Society of American Archivists. ISBN   1-931666-17-2, ISBN   978-1-931666-17-6 Sipley, Louis Walton, A Half Century of Color, Macmillan, 1951 Time-Life Books. (1982). Caring for photographs: display, storage, restoration. Life library of photography. Alexandria, Va: Time-Life Books. ISBN   0-8094-4420-8 Weinstein, R. A., & Booth, L. (1977). Collection, use, and care of historical photographs. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History. ISBN   0-910050-21-X Wilhelm, H. G., & Brower, C. (1993). The permanence and care of color photographs: traditional and digital color prints, color negatives, slides, and motion pictures. Grinnell, Iowa, U. A. : Preservation Pub. Co. ISBN   0-911515-00-3 Wythe, D. (2004). Museum archives: an introduction. ISBN   1-931666-06-7, ISBN   978-1-931666-06-0 External links [ edit]
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To confusa vou ver o final mas umas vezes pra entender mas o filme e bom so complicado. Amazing human being you are. thank you for sharing your life and motivate us to continue to live and have faith in ourself and humanity <3 Obrigado. Critics Consensus Photograph enriches the familiar arc of its love story by refreshingly refracting its characters' budding bond through a sociocultural prism. 79% TOMATOMETER Total Count: 87 67% Audience Score User Ratings: 82 Photograph Ratings & Reviews Explanation Photograph Videos Photos Movie Info Two lives intersect in Mumbai and go along together. A struggling street photographer, pressured to marry by his grandmother, convinces a shy stranger to pose as his fiancée. The pair develops a connection that transforms them in ways that they could not expect. Rating: PG-13 (for some thematic material) Genre: Directed By: Written By: In Theaters: May 17, 2019 limited On Disc/Streaming: Aug 16, 2019 Runtime: 109 minutes Studio: Amazon Studios Cast News & Interviews for Photograph Critic Reviews for Photograph Audience Reviews for Photograph Photograph Quotes Movie & TV guides.

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Photography Lens and mounting of a large-format camera Other names Science or art of creating durable images Types Recording light or other electromagnetic radiation Inventor Thomas Wedgwood (1800) Related Stereoscopic, Full-spectrum, Light field, Electrophotography, Photograms, Scanner Photography is the art, application and practice of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either electronically by means of an image sensor, or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film. It is employed in many fields of science, manufacturing (e. g., photolithography), and business, as well as its more direct uses for art, film and video production, recreational purposes, hobby, and mass communication. [1] Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic image sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel, which is electronically processed and stored in a digital image file for subsequent display or processing. The result with photographic emulsion is an invisible latent image, which is later chemically "developed" into a visible image, either negative or positive depending on the purpose of the photographic material and the method of processing. A negative image on film is traditionally used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print, either by using an enlarger or by contact printing. Etymology [ edit] The word "photography" was created from the Greek roots φωτός ( phōtos), genitive of φῶς ( phōs), "light" [2] and γραφή ( graphé) "representation by means of lines" or "drawing", [3] together meaning "drawing with light". [4] Several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Hercules Florence, a French painter and inventor living in Campinas, Brazil, used the French form of the word, photographie, in private notes which a Brazilian historian believes were written in 1834. [5] This claim is widely reported but is not yet largely recognized internationally. The first use of the word by the Franco-Brazilian inventor became widely known after the research of Boris Kossoy in 1980. [6] The German newspaper Vossische Zeitung of 25 February 1839 contained an article entitled Photographie, discussing several priority claims – especially Henry Fox Talbot 's – regarding Daguerre's claim of invention. [7] The article is the earliest known occurrence of the word in public print. [8] It was signed "J. M. ", believed to have been Berlin astronomer Johann von Maedler. [9] The astronomer Sir John Herschel is also credited with coining the word, independent of Talbot, in 1839. [10] The inventors Nicéphore Niépce, Henry Fox Talbot and Louis Daguerre seem not to have known or used the word "photography", but referred to their processes as "Heliography" (Niépce), "Photogenic Drawing"/"Talbotype"/"Calotype" (Talbot) and "Daguerreotype" (Daguerre). [9] History [ edit] Precursor technologies [ edit] A camera obscura used for drawing Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, relating to seeing an image and capturing the image. The discovery of the camera obscura ("dark chamber" in Latin) that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid independently described a camera obscura in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. [11] [12] In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments. [13] The Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) also invented a camera obscura as well as the first true pinhole camera. [12] [14] [15] The invention of the camera has been traced back to the work of Ibn al-Haytham. [16] While the effects of a single light passing through a pinhole had been described earlier, [16] Ibn al-Haytham gave the first correct analysis of the camera obscura, [17] including the first geometrical and quantitative descriptions of the phenomenon, [18] and was the first to use a screen in a dark room so that an image from one side of a hole in the surface could be projected onto a screen on the other side. [19] He also first understood the relationship between the focal point and the pinhole, [20] and performed early experiments with afterimages, laying the foundations for the invention of photography in the 19th century. [15] Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. Renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. It is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. The birth of photography was then concerned with inventing means to capture and keep the image produced by the camera obscura. Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate, [21] and Georg Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered silver chloride, [22] and the techniques described in Ibn al-Haytham 's Book of Optics are capable of producing primitive photographs using medieval materials. [23] [24] Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566. [25] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694. [26] The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography. [25] Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance. He used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even made shadow copies of paintings on glass, it was reported in 1802 that "the images formed by means of a camera obscura have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver. " The shadow images eventually darkened all over. [27] Invention [ edit] Earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, 1825, printed from a metal plate made by Nicéphore Niépce. [28] The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph taken with a camera. The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. [28] Niépce was successful again in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i. e., of the image of a real-world scene, as formed in a camera obscura by a lens). [29] Because Niépce's camera photographs required an extremely long exposure (at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. In partnership with Louis Daguerre, he worked out post-exposure processing methods that produced visually superior results and replaced the bitumen with a more light-sensitive resin, but hours of exposure in the camera were still required. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy. Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre then redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitive silver halides, which Niépce had abandoned many years earlier because of his inability to make the images he captured with them light-fast and permanent. Daguerre's efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process. The essential elements—a silver-plated surface sensitized by iodine vapor, developed by mercury vapor, and "fixed" with hot saturated salt water—were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: unlike the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the busy boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout the several-minutes-long exposure to be visible. The existence of Daguerre's process was publicly announced, without details, on 7 January 1839. The news created an international sensation. France soon agreed to pay Daguerre a pension in exchange for the right to present his invention to the world as the gift of France, which occurred when complete working instructions were unveiled on 19 August 1839. In that same year, American photographer Robert Cornelius is credited with taking the earliest surviving photographic self-portrait. A latticed window in Lacock Abbey, England, photographed by William Fox Talbot in 1835. Shown here in positive form, this may be the oldest extant photographic negative made in a camera. In Brazil, Hercules Florence had apparently started working out a silver-salt-based paper process in 1832, later naming it Photographie. Meanwhile, a British inventor, William Fox Talbot, had succeeded in making crude but reasonably light-fast silver images on paper as early as 1834 but had kept his work secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention in January 1839, Talbot published his hitherto secret method and set about improving on it. At first, like other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot's paper-based photography typically required hours-long exposures in the camera, but in 1840 he created the calotype process, which used the chemical development of a latent image to greatly reduce the exposure needed and compete with the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms, Talbot's process, unlike Daguerre's, created a translucent negative which could be used to print multiple positive copies; this is the basis of most modern chemical photography up to the present day, as daguerreotypes could only be replicated by rephotographing them with a camera. [30] Talbot's famous tiny paper negative of the Oriel window in Lacock Abbey, one of a number of camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest camera negative in existence. [31] [32] In France, Hippolyte Bayard invented his own process for producing direct positive paper prints and claimed to have invented photography earlier than Daguerre or Talbot. [33] British chemist John Herschel made many contributions to the new field. He invented the cyanotype process, later familiar as the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He had discovered in 1819 that sodium thiosulphate was a solvent of silver halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to "fix" silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely light-fast. He made the first glass negative in late 1839. In the March 1851 issue of The Chemist, Frederick Scott Archer published his wet plate collodion process. It became the most widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced it. There are three subsets to the collodion process; the Ambrotype (a positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (a positive image on metal) and the glass negative, which was used to make positive prints on albumen or salted paper. Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1891, Gabriel Lippmann introduced a process for making natural-color photographs based on the optical phenomenon of the interference of light waves. His scientifically elegant and important but ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1908. Glass plates were the medium for most original camera photography from the late 1850s until the general introduction of flexible plastic films during the 1890s. Although the convenience of the film greatly popularized amateur photography, early films were somewhat more expensive and of markedly lower optical quality than their glass plate equivalents, and until the late 1910s they were not available in the large formats preferred by most professional photographers, so the new medium did not immediately or completely replace the old. Because of the superior dimensional stability of glass, the use of plates for some scientific applications, such as astrophotography, continued into the 1990s, and in the niche field of laser holography, it has persisted into the 2010s. Film [ edit] Undeveloped Arista black-and-white film, ISO 125/22° Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on the light sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised. The first flexible photographic roll film was marketed by George Eastman, founder of Kodak in 1885, but this original "film" was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper and transferred to a hardened gelatin support. The first transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammable nitrocellulose (" celluloid "), now usually called " nitrate film ". Although cellulose acetate or " safety film " had been introduced by Kodak in 1908, [34] at first it found only a few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was not completed for X-ray films until 1933, and although safety film was always used for 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm motion pictures until it was finally discontinued in 1951. Films remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats. [35] Although modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used by enthusiasts and professional photographers. The distinctive "look" of film based photographs compared to digital images is likely due to a combination of factors, including: (1) differences in spectral and tonal sensitivity (S-shaped density-to-exposure (H&D curve) with film vs. linear response curve for digital CCD sensors) [36] (2) resolution and (3) continuity of tone. [37] Black-and-white [ edit] Originally, all photography was monochrome, or black-and-white. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic" photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark areas define black-and-white photography. [38] It is important to note that monochromatic pictures are not necessarily composed of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of gray but can involve shades of one particular hue depending on the process. The cyanotype process, for example, produces an image composed of blue tones. The albumen print process first used more than 170 years ago, produces brownish tones. Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, sometimes because of the established archival permanence of well-processed silver-halide-based materials. Some full-color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black-and-white results, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome. Monochrome printing or electronic display can be used to salvage certain photographs taken in color which are unsatisfactory in their original form; sometimes when presented as black-and-white or single-color-toned images they are found to be more effective. Although color photography has long predominated, monochrome images are still produced, mostly for artistic reasons. Almost all digital cameras have an option to shoot in monochrome, and almost all image editing software can combine or selectively discard RGB color channels to produce a monochrome image from one shot in color. Color [ edit] Color photography was explored beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not "fix" the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light. The first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle first published by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855. [39] [40] The foundation of virtually all practical color processes, Maxwell's idea was to take three separate black-and-white photographs through red, green and blue filters. [39] [40] This provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image. Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, an additive method of color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposing carbon prints of the three images made in their complementary colors, a subtractive method of color reproduction pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron in the late 1860s. Color photography was possible long before Kodachrome, as this 1903 portrait by Sarah Angelina Acland demonstrates, but in its earliest years, the need for special equipment, long exposures, and complicated printing processes made it extremely rare. Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii made extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special camera which successively exposed the three color-filtered images on different parts of an oblong plate. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color "fringes" or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared as brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images. Implementation of color photography was hindered by the limited sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blue, only slightly sensitive to green, and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemist Hermann Vogel in 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to green, yellow and even red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity of emulsions steadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability. Autochrome, the first commercially successful color process, was introduced by the Lumière brothers in 1907. Autochrome plates incorporated a mosaic color filter layer made of dyed grains of potato starch, which allowed the three color components to be recorded as adjacent microscopic image fragments. After an Autochrome plate was reversal processed to produce a positive transparency, the starch grains served to illuminate each fragment with the correct color and the tiny colored points blended together in the eye, synthesizing the color of the subject by the additive method. Autochrome plates were one of several varieties of additive color screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s. Kodachrome, the first modern "integral tripack" (or "monopack") color film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the three color components in a multi-layer emulsion. One layer was sensitized to record the red-dominated part of the spectrum, another layer recorded only the green part and a third recorded only the blue. Without special film processing, the result would simply be three superimposed black-and-white images, but complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images were created in those layers by adding color couplers during a complex processing procedure. Agfa's similarly structured Agfacolor Neu was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. Currently, available color films still employ a multi-layer emulsion and the same principles, most closely resembling Agfa's product. Instant color film, used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished color print only a minute or two after the exposure, was introduced by Polaroid in 1963. Color photography may form images as positive transparencies, which can be used in a slide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment. After a transition period centered around 1995–2005, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel digital cameras. Film continues to be the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive "look". Digital [ edit] Kodak DCS 100, based on a Nikon F3 body with Digital Storage Unit In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. The first digital camera to both record and save images in a digital format was the Fujix DS-1P created by Fujfilm in 1988. [41] In 1991, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital single lens reflex camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born. Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. [42] An important difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists photo manipulation because it involves film and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications. Digital photography dominates the 21st century. More than 99% of photographs taken around the world are through digital cameras, increasingly through smartphones. Synthesis [ edit] Synthesis photography is part of computer-generated imagery (CGI) where the shooting process is modeled on real photography. The CGI, creating digital copies of real universe, requires a visual representation process of these universes. Synthesis photography is the application of analog and digital photography in digital space. With the characteristics of the real photography but not being constrained by the physical limits of real world, synthesis photography allows artists to move into areas beyond the grasp of real photography. [43] Techniques [ edit] Angles such as vertical, horizontal, or as pictured here diagonal are considered important photographic techniques A large variety of photographic techniques and media are used in the process of capturing images for photography. These include the camera; stereoscopy; dualphotography; full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared media; light field photography; and other imaging techniques. Cameras [ edit] The camera is the image-forming device, and a photographic plate, photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is the capture medium. The respective recording medium can be the plate or film itself, or a digital magnetic or electronic memory. [44] Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light recording material to the required amount of light to form a " latent image " (on plate or film) or RAW file (in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. Digital cameras use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on a paper. The camera (or ' camera obscura ') is a dark room or chamber from which, as far as possible, all light is excluded except the light that forms the image. It was discovered and used in the 16th century by painters. The subject being photographed, however, must be illuminated. Cameras can range from small to very large, a whole room that is kept dark while the object to be photographed is in another room where it is properly illuminated. This was common for reproduction photography of flat copy when large film negatives were used (see Process camera). As soon as photographic materials became "fast" (sensitive) enough for taking candid or surreptitious pictures, small "detective" cameras were made, some actually disguised as a book or handbag or pocket watch (the Ticka camera) or even worn hidden behind an Ascot necktie with a tie pin that was really the lens. The movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on recording medium. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a "frame". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. [45] Stereoscopic [ edit] Photographs, both monochrome and color, can be captured and displayed through two side-by-side images that emulate human stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic photography was the first that captured figures in motion. [46] While known colloquially as "3-D" photography, the more accurate term is stereoscopy. Such cameras have long been realized by using film and more recently in digital electronic methods (including cell phone cameras). Dualphotography [ edit] An example of a dualphoto using a smartphone based app Dualphotography consists of photographing a scene from both sides of a photographic device at once (e. g. camera for back-to-back dualphotography, or two networked cameras for portal-plane dualphotography). The dualphoto apparatus can be used to simultaneously capture both the subject and the photographer, or both sides of a geographical place at once, thus adding a supplementary narrative layer to that of a single image. [47] Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared [ edit] Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions. Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm. [48] Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters). Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics and law enforcement. Light field [ edit] Digital methods of image capture and display processing have enabled the new technology of "light field photography" (also known as synthetic aperture photography). This process allows focusing at various depths of field to be selected after the photograph has been captured. [49] As explained by Michael Faraday in 1846, the " light field " is understood as 5-dimensional, with each point in 3-D space having attributes of two more angles that define the direction of each ray passing through that point. These additional vector attributes can be captured optically through the use of microlenses at each pixel point within the 2-dimensional image sensor. Every pixel of the final image is actually a selection from each sub-array located under each microlens, as identified by a post-image capture focus algorithm. Other [ edit] Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic medium, hence the term electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures. Types of photography [ edit] Amateur [ edit] An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a hobby / passion and not necessarily for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable to that of many professionals and may be highly specialized or eclectic in choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or reward. Amateur photography grew during the late 19th century due to the popularization of the hand-held camera. [50] Nowadays it has spread widely through social media and is carried out throughout different platforms and equipment, switching to the use of cell phone. Good pictures can now be taken with a cell phone which is a key tool for making photography more accessible to everyone. [51] Commercial [ edit] Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this light, money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include: Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are generally done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team. Fashion and glamour photography usually incorporates models and is a form of advertising photography. Fashion photography, like the work featured in Harper's Bazaar, emphasizes clothes and other products; glamour emphasizes the model and body form. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and men's magazines. Models in glamour photography sometimes work nude. 360 product photography displays a series of photos to give the impression of a rotating object. This technique is commonly used by ecommerce websites to help shoppers visualise products. Concert photography focuses on capturing candid images of both the artist or band as well as the atmosphere (including the crowd). Many of these photographers work freelance and are contracted through an artist or their management to cover a specific show. Concert photographs are often used to promote the artist or band in addition to the venue. Crime scene photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details. Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made. Still life is a broader category for food and some natural photography and can be used for advertising purposes. Real Estate photography focuses on the production of photographs showcasing a property that is for sale, such photographs requires the use of wide-lens and extensive knowledge in High-dynamic-range imaging photography. Example of a studio-made food photograph. Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life photography but requires some special skills. Photojournalism can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story. Paparazzi is a form of photojournalism in which the photographer captures candid images of athletes, celebrities, politicians, and other prominent people. Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images. Landscape photography depicts locations. Wildlife photography demonstrates the life of animals. Art [ edit] During the 20th century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate ' straight photography ', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else. The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art. Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that only "significant form" can distinguish art from what is not art. There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible – significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions. [52] On 7 February 2007, Sotheby's London sold the 2001 photograph 99 Cent II Diptychon for an unprecedented $3, 346, 456 to an anonymous bidder, making it the most expensive at the time. [53] Conceptual photography turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract. Photojournalism [ edit] Photojournalism is a particular form of photography (the collecting, editing, and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images, but in some cases the term also refers to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography (e. g., documentary photography, social documentary photography, street photography or celebrity photography) by complying with a rigid ethical framework which demands that the work be both honest and impartial whilst telling the story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the news media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be well informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a creative format that is not only informative, but also entertaining. Science and forensics [ edit] The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording scientific phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events ( eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording crime scenes and the scenes of accidents, such as the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861. The methods used in analysing photographs for use in legal cases are collectively known as forensic photography. Crime scene photos are taken from three vantage point. The vantage points are overview, mid-range, and close-up. [54] In 1845 Francis Ronalds, the Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory, invented the first successful camera to make continuous recordings of meteorological and geomagnetic parameters. Different machines produced 12- or 24- hour photographic traces of the minute-by-minute variations of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, atmospheric electricity, and the three components of geomagnetic forces. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use until well into the 20th century. [55] [56] Charles Brooke a little later developed similar instruments for the Greenwich Observatory. [57] Science uses image technology that has derived from the design of the Pin Hole camera. X-Ray machines are similar in design to Pin Hole cameras with high-grade filters and laser radiation. [58] Photography has become universal in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and improved much further since that time. [59] The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an electric field to trap an "Ion" of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic film. [60] Social and cultural implications [ edit] There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her On Photography (1977), Susan Sontag dismisses the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community. [61] Sontag argues, "To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one's self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power. " [62] Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines, it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation. Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its effect on society. In Alfred Hitchcock 's Rear Window (1954), the camera is presented as promoting voyeurism. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'. [62] The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate – all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment. [62] Digital imaging has raised ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post-processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not crop their pictures or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make " photomontages ", passing them as "real" photographs. Today's technology has made image editing relatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allow digital fingerprinting of photos to detect tampering for purposes of forensic photography. Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society. [63] Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed. " Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality. [62] One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a "tourist gaze" [64] in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a "reverse gaze" [65] through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images. Additionally, photography has been the topic of many songs in popular culture. Law [ edit] Photography is both restricted as well as protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the United States, photography is protected as a First Amendment right and anyone is free to photograph anything seen in public spaces as long as it is in plain view. [66] In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places. [67] In South Africa, any person may photograph any other person, without their permission, in public spaces and the only specific restriction placed on what may not be photographed by government is related to anything classed as national security. Each country has different laws. See also [ edit] Outline of photography Science of photography List of photographers Astrophotography Image editing Photolab and minilab Visual arts References [ edit] ^ Spencer, D A (1973). The Focal Dictionary of Photographic Technologies. Focal Press. p. 454. ISBN   978-0-13-322719-2. ^ φάος Archived 25 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ γραφή Archived 25 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus ^ Harper, Douglas. "photograph". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Boris Kossoy (2004). Hercule Florence: El descubrimiento de la fotografía en Brasil. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. ISBN   978-968-03-0020-4. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2015. ^ Boris Kossoy (1980). Hercule Florence: a descoberta isolada da fotografia no Brasil. São Paulo: Duas Cidades. ^ " The Science of Photography: Appreciation through Understanding".. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2019. ^ Mathur, P, K & S (6 March 2014). Developments and Changes in Science Based Technologies. Partridge Publishing. p. 50. Retrieved 25 June 2019. ^ a b Eder, J. (1945) [1932]. History of Photography, 4th. edition [ Geschichte der Photographie]. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 258–59. ISBN   978-0-486-23586-8. ^ "Sir John Frederick William Herschel (British, 1792–1871) (Getty Museum)". The J. Paul Getty in Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2019. ^ Campbell, Jan (2005) Film and cinema spectatorship: melodrama and mimesis Archived 29 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Polity. p. 114. ISBN   0-7456-2930-X ^ a b Krebs, Robert E. (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 20. ISBN   978-0-313-32433-8. ^ Crombie, Alistair Cameron (1990) Science, optics, and music in medieval and early modern thought. A&C Black. 205. ISBN   978-0-907628-79-8 ^ Wade, Nicholas J. ; Finger, Stanley (2001). "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective". Perception. 30 (10): 1157–77. doi: 10. 1068/p3210. PMID   11721819. ^ a b Plott, John C. (1984). Global History of Philosophy: The Period of scholasticism (part one). p. 460. ISBN   978-0-89581-678-8. According to Nazir Ahmed if only Ibn-Haitham's fellow-workers and students had been as alert as he, they might even have invented the art of photography since al-Haitham's experiments with convex and concave mirrors and his invention of the "pinhole camera" whereby the inverted image of a candle-flame is projected were among his many successes in experimentation. One might likewise almost claim that he had anticipated much that the nineteenth century Fechner did in experimentation with after-images. ^ a b Belbachir, Ahmed Nabil (2009). Smart Cameras. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN   978-1-4419-0953-4. The invention of the camera can be traced back to the 10th century when the Arab scientist Al-Hasan Ibn al-Haytham alias Alhacen provided the first clear description and correct analysis of the (human) vision process. Although the effects of single light passing through the pinhole have alrady been described by the Chinese Mozi (Lat. Micius) (5th century B), the Greek Aristotle (4th century BC), and the Arab ^ Wade, Nicholas J. ; Finger, Stanley (2001), "The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective", Perception, 30 (10): 1157–1177, doi: 10. 1068/p3210, PMID   11721819, The principles of the camera obscura first began to be correctly analysed in the eleventh century, when they were outlined by Ibn al-Haytham. ^ Needham, Joseph. Science and Civilization in China, vol. IV, part 1: Physics and Physical Technology (PDF). p. 98. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2016. Alhazen used the camera obscura particularly for observing solar eclipses, as indeed Aristotle is said to have done, and it seems that, like Shen Kua, he had predecessors in its study, since he did not claim it as any new finding of his own. But his treatment of it was competently geometrical and quantitative for the first time. ^ "Who Invented Camera Obscura? ". Photography History Facts. All these scientists experimented with a small hole and light but none of them suggested that a screen is used so an image from one side of a hole in surface could be projected at the screen on the other. First one to do so was Alhazen (also known as Ibn al-Haytham) in 11th century. ^ Needham, Joseph. p. 99. The genius of Shen Kua's insight into the relation of focal point and pinhole can better be appreciated when we read in Singer that this was first understood in Europe by Leonardo da Vinci (+ 1452 to + 1519), almost five hundred years later. A diagram showing the relation occurs in the Codice Atlantico, Leonardo thought that the lens of the eye reversed the pinhole effect, so that the image did not appear inverted on the retina; though in fact it does. Actually, the analogy of focal-point and pin-point must have been understood by Ibn al-Haitham, who died just about the time when Shen Kua was born. ^ Davidson, Michael W (13 November 2015). "Albertus Magnus". Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You. National High Magnetic Field Laboratory at The Florida State University. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. ^ Potonniée, Georges (1973). The history of the discovery of photography. Arno Press. 50. ISBN   0-405-04929-3 ^ Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1994). "A reappraisal of late thirteenth-century responses to the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin: encolpia of the Eucharist, vera eikon or supreme relic? ". The Southern African Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies. 4 (1): 62–94. ^ Allen, Nicholas P. "Verification of the Nature and Causes of the Photo-negative Images on the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin". ^ a b Gernsheim, Helmut (1986). A concise history of photography Archived 29 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3–4. ISBN   0-486-25128-4 ^ Gernsheim, Helmut and Gernsheim, Alison (1955) The history of photography from the earliest use of the camera obscura in the eleventh century up to 1914. Oxford University Press. 20. ^ Litchfield, R. 1903. "Tom Wedgwood, the First Photographer: An Account of His Life. " London, Duckworth and Co. See Chapter XIII. Includes the complete text of Humphry Davy's 1802 paper, which is the only known contemporary record of Wedgwood's experiments. (Retrieved 7 May 2013 via Archived 7 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine). ^ a b "The First Photograph – Heliography". Archived from the original on 6 October 2009. Retrieved 29 September 2009. from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography, " in History of Photography, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977:.. 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate... The sunlight passing through... This first permanent example... was destroyed... some years later. ^ Hirsch, Robert (1999). Seizing the light: a history of photography. McGraw-Hill. ISBN   978-0-697-14361-7. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2015. ^ William Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877) Archived 3 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine. BBC ^ Feldman, Anthony and Ford, Peter (1989) Scientists & inventors. Bloomsbury Books, p. 128, ISBN   1-870630-23-8. ^ Fox Talbot, William Henry and Jammes, André (1973) William H. Fox Talbot, inventor of the negative-positive process, Macmillan, p. 95. ^ "Hippolyte Bayard (French, 1801–1887) (Getty Museum)". Archived from the original on 24 October 2013. Retrieved 21 April 2019. ^ History of Kodak, Milestones-chronology: 1878–1929 Archived 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Peres, Michael R. (2008). The Concise Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: from the first photo on paper to the digital revolution. Burlington, MA: Focal Press/Elsevier. p. 75. ISBN   978-0-240-80998-4. ^ "H&D curve of film vs digital" (Forum Discussion). Digital Photography Review. 19 April 2004. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. ^ Jacobson, Ralph E. (2000). The Focal Manual of Photography: photographic and digital imaging (9th ed. ). Boston, MA: Focal Press. ISBN   978-0-240-51574-8. ^ "Black & White Photography". PSA Journal. 77 (12): 38–40. 2011. ^ a b "1861: James Clerk Maxwell's greatest year". King's College London. 3 January 2017. Archived from the original on 4 January 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2017. ^ a b "From Charles Mackintosh's waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world". The independent. 2 January 2016. Archived from the original on 2 October 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2017. ^ ^ Schewe, Jeff (2012). The Digital Negative: Raw Image Processing In Lightroom, Camera Raw, and Photoshop. Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press, ISBN   0-321-83957-9, p. 72 ^ Paux, Marc-Olivier (1 February 2011). Synthesis photography and architecture. Imagina. Monaco. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. ^ "Glossary: Digital Photography Review". Archived from the original on 18 January 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2013. ^ Anderson, Joseph; Anderson, Barbara (Spring 1993). "The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited". Journal of Film and Video. 45 (1): 3–12. Archived from the original on 24 November 2009. ^ Belisle, Brooke (2013). "The Dimensional Image: Overlaps In Stereoscopic, Cinematic, And Digital Depth". Film Criticism. 37/38 (3/1): 117–37. ^ Zand, Tristan (8 April 2017). "An introduction to Dualphotography".. Archived from the original on 16 April 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2017. ^ Twede, David. Introduction to Full-Spectrum and Infrared photography. ^ Ng, Ren (July 2006) Digital Light Field Photography. PhD Thesis, Stanford University ^ Peterson, C. A. (2011). "Home Portraiture". History of Photography. 35 (4): 374–87. 1080/03087298. 2011. 606727. ^ Oloruntimilehin, Israel (17 September 2018). "How To Take Good Pictures With Your Phone". List Dorm. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. ^ Clive Bell. " Art Archived 3 August 2004 at the Wayback Machine ", 1914. Retrieved 2 September 2006. ^ Schonauer, David (7 March 2007). "The first $3M photograph". PopPhoto. Archived from the original on 18 March 2007. ^ Rohde, R. R. Crime Photography. PSA Journal, 66(3), 15. ^ Ronalds, B. F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN   978-1-78326-917-4. ^ Ronalds, B. "The Beginnings of Continuous Scientific Recording using Photography: Sir Francis Ronalds' Contribution". European Society for the History of Photography. Archived from the original on 13 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016. ^ Brooke (1853). "Photographic self-registering magnetic and meteorological apparatus: Invented by Mr. Brooke of Keppel-Street, London". The Illustrated Magazine of Art. 1 (5): 308–11. 2307/20537989. JSTOR   20537989. Retrieved 13 December 2015. ^ Upadhyay, J. ; Chakera, J. ; Navathe, C. P. ; Naik, P. ; Joshi, A. S. ; Gupta, P. D. (2006). "Development of single frame X-ray framing camera for pulsed plasma experiments". Sadhana. 31 (5): 613. CiteSeerX   10. 1. 570. 172. 1007/BF02715917. ^ Blitzer, Herbert L. ; Stein-Ferguson, Karen; Huang, Jeffrey (2008). Understanding forensic digital imaging. Academic Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN   978-0-12-370451-1. Retrieved 13 December 2015. ^ Glenday, Craig (2013). Guinness Book of Records 2014. p.  192. ISBN   978-1-908843-15-9. ^ Bissell, K. "A Return to 'Mr. Gates': Photography and Objectivity". Newspaper Research Journal. 21 (3): 81–93. 1177/073953290002100307. ^ a b c d Sontag, S. (1977) On Photography, Penguin, London, pp. 3–24, ISBN   0-312-42009-9. ^ Levinson, P. (1997) The Soft Edge: a Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution, Routledge, London and New York, pp. 37–48, ISBN   0-415-15785-4. ^ Urry, John (2002). The tourist gaze (2nd ed. London: Sage. ISBN   978-0-7619-7347-8. ^ Gillespie, Alex. "Tourist Photography and the Reverse Gaze". ^ "You Have Every Right to Photograph That Cop". American Civil Liberties Union. Archived from the original on 25 February 2016. Retrieved 18 February 2016. ^ "Jail for photographing police? ". British Journal of Photography. 28 January 2009. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Further reading [ edit] Introduction [ edit] Barrett, T 2012, Criticizing Photographs: an introduction to understanding images, 5th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York. Bate, D. (2009), Photography: The Key Concepts, Bloomsbury, New York. Berger, J. (Dyer, G. ed. ), (2013), Understanding a Photograph, Penguin Classics, London. Bright, S 2011, Art Photography Now, Thames & Hudson, London. Cotton, C. (2015), The Photograph as Contemporary Art, 3rd edn, Thames & Hudson, New York. Heiferman, M. (2013), Photography Changes Everything, Aperture Foundation, US. Shore, S. (2015), The Nature of Photographs, 2nd ed. Phaidon, New York. Wells, L. (2004), Photography. A Critical Introduction [Paperback], 3rd ed. Routledge, London. ISBN   0-415-30704-X A New History of Photography, ed. by Michel Frizot, Köln: Könemann, 1998 Franz-Xaver Schlegel, Das Leben der toten Dinge – Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den USA 1914–1935, 2 Bände, Stuttgart/Germany: Art in Life 1999, ISBN   3-00-004407-8. Reference works [ edit] Tom Ang (2002). Dictionary of Photography and Digital Imaging: The Essential Reference for the Modern Photographer. Watson-Guptill. ISBN   978-0-8174-3789-3. Hans-Michael Koetzle: Das Lexikon der Fotografen: 1900 bis heute, Munich: Knaur 2002, 512 p., ISBN   3-426-66479-8 John Hannavy (ed. ): Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 1736 p., New York: Routledge 2005 ISBN   978-0-415-97235-2 Lynne Warren (Hrsg. ): Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography, 1719 p., New York: Routledge, 2006 The Oxford Companion to the Photograph, ed. by Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005 "The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography", Richard Zakia, Leslie Stroebel, Focal Press 1993, ISBN   0-240-51417-3 Stroebel, Leslie (2000). Basic Photographic Materials and Processes. et al. Boston: Focal Press. ISBN   978-0-240-80405-7. Other books [ edit] Photography and The Art of Seeing by Freeman Patterson, Key Porter Books 1989, ISBN   1-55013-099-4. The Art of Photography: An Approach to Personal Expression by Bruce Barnbaum, Rocky Nook 2010, ISBN   1-933952-68-7. Image Clarity: High Resolution Photography by John B. Williams, Focal Press 1990, ISBN   0-240-80033-8. External links [ edit] World History of Photography From The History of Art. Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process From the State Library & Archives of Florida.

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Oi achei bem interessante vídeo só não entendi o pq vc scaneou o negativo sendo q  vc tem um laboratório  e pode pegar um papel fotográfico colocar um sobre o outro jogar luz branca que sai positivo... 4 nominations. See more awards  » Learn more More Like This Drama | Romance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 7. 8 / 10 X A mistaken delivery in Mumbai's famously efficient lunchbox delivery system connects a young housewife to an older man in the dusk of his life as they build a fantasy world together through notes in the lunchbox. Director: Ritesh Batra Stars: Irrfan Khan, Nimrat Kaur, Nawazuddin Siddiqui Action Crime 7. 5 / 10 Set in the Chambal valley, the film follows the story of a legion of dreaded, warring dacoits who once terrorized the Indian heartlands. Abhishek Chaubey Sushant Singh Rajput, Bhumi Pednekar, Manoj Bajpayee Comedy 7. 2 / 10 Based on Charan Singh Pathik's short story Do Behnein, Pataakha narrates the story of two feuding sisters who realize the true nature of their relationship only after marriage "separates" them. Vishal Bhardwaj Sanya Malhotra, Radhika Madan, Sunil Grover Biography 7. 4 / 10 The film is a biographical account of writer Saadat Hasan Manto's life and is set in 1940s India. Nandita Das Nawazuddin Siddiqui, Rasika Dugal, Tahir Raj Bhasin 7. 7 / 10 Eight year-old Hamid learns that 786 is God's number and decides to try and reach out to God, by dialing this number. He wants to talk to his father, who his mother tells him has gone to Allah. One fine day the phone call is answered. Aijaz Khan Talha Arshad Reshi, Vikas Kumar, Rasika Dugal 8. 2 / 10 A celebrated Bollywood director Rohan Khurana stands accused by a female member of his crew, Anjali Dangle of having raped her at his residence. Ajay Bahl Akshaye Khanna, Richa Chadha, Meera Chopra In the rural heartlands of India, an upright police officer sets out on a crusade against violent caste-based crimes and discrimination. Anubhav Sinha Ayushmann Khurrana, Nassar, Manoj Pahwa 6. 8 / 10 A story about four children living in a Mumbai slum in India. An eight-year old Kanhu writes a letter to the Prime Minister after a dramatic incident with his mother. A small boy has to achieve the impossible. Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra Rasika Agashe, Sonia Albizuri, Syna Anand It is a story of a young boy Surya who has a rare condition of Congenital Insensitivity to pain meaning he can not feel pain, and he sets out to learn martial arts and hunt down muggers. Vasan Bala Abhimanyu Dasani, Mahesh Manjrekar 5. 1 / 10 Biographical account of Shiv Sena Supremo, Balasaheb Thackeray. Abhijit Panse Amrita Rao, Radha Sagar An ex-army officer, Kabir, becomes a teacher in Kashmir in a school that is in a miserable condition. Things take a turn when Kabir finds a notebook, left behind by the previous year's teacher Firdaus (Pranutan Bahl). Nitin Kakkar Zaheer Iqbal, Pranutan Bahl, Mir Mohammed Mehroos 6. 3 / 10 It tells the story of a television reporter in Mathura who falls in love with a headstrong woman. Laxman Utekar Kartik Aaryan, Kriti Sanon, Aparshakti Khurana Edit Storyline Two lives intersect in Mumbai and go along together. A struggling street photographer, pressured to marry by his grandmother, convinces a shy stranger to pose as his fiancée. The pair develops a connection that transforms them in ways that they could not expect. From Ritesh Batra (The Lunchbox). Plot Summary Add Synopsis Details Release Date: 17 May 2019 (USA) See more  » Box Office Opening Weekend USA: $35, 796, 19 May 2019 Cumulative Worldwide Gross: $1, 019, 196 See more on IMDbPro  » Company Credits Technical Specs See full technical specs  » Did You Know? Trivia Ritesh Batra's second film after much acclaimed Lunchbox 2013. See more » Quotes Miloni: When I saw the photo he took of me, I didn't see myself. I saw someone who looked happier than me. See more » Soundtracks Tumne Mujhe Dekha Hokar Meherban Written by Majrooh Sultanpuri See more » Frequently Asked Questions See more ».

Edit Storyline Ilias Apostolou, a young furrier who has had a hard time under the dictatorship, leaves Castoria in 1971 to emigrate to France, where he hopes to join a distant relative of his, Gerassimos Tzivas, who has been living there since 1950. With him, he takes nothing from his homeland but a photograph of a person that he finds on the pavement. He asks Gerassimos to help him in finding work in Paris. A misunderstanding around the photograph, however, sets off a series of dramatic events. Written by Artemis-9 Plot Summary | Add Synopsis Details Release Date: 28 October 1987 (France) See more  » Company Credits Technical Specs See full technical specs  »
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Edit Storyline Ilias Apostolou, a young furrier who has had a hard time under the dictatorship, leaves Castoria in 1971 to emigrate to France, where he hopes to join a distant relative of his, Gerassimos Tzivas, who has been living there since 1950. With him, he takes nothing from his homeland but a photograph of a person that he finds on the pavement. He asks Gerassimos to help him in finding work in Paris. A misunderstanding around the photograph, however, sets off a series of dramatic events. Written by Artemis-9 Plot Summary | Add Synopsis Details Release Date: 28 October 1987 (France) See more  » Company Credits Technical Specs See full technical specs  ».

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